Difference between revisions of "Terahertz Radiation"
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[[Image:THz_PDA.png|thumb|400px|Schematic of photoconductive dipole antenna emitter and sensor]] | [[Image:THz_PDA.png|thumb|400px|Schematic of photoconductive dipole antenna emitter and sensor]] | ||
In a PDA, THz radiation is emitted by an ultra-fast transient photo-current created in a biased semiconductor, typically GaAs. The semiconductor is photo-excited with an ultra-short pulse to generate short-lived charges, which are accelerated with an applied electric field. Though PDAs are bright THz sources, finite carrier lifetimes limit the bandwidth available from photoconductive materials to less than that acheivable via OR in NLO materials. Detection of the THz pulse occurs, essentially, through the opposite effect. An ultra-short pulse generates short-lived charge carriers, which are subsequently accelerated by the THz electric field. This generates a transient current between two electrodes, which is proportional to the amplitude and direction of the THz electric field making this a coherent detection technique. A delay stage allows for the one pulse to be moved in time with respect to the other, similar to a correlation, such that the THz waveform is sampled point-by-point by the "probe" pulse | In a PDA, THz radiation is emitted by an ultra-fast transient photo-current created in a biased semiconductor, typically GaAs. The semiconductor is photo-excited with an ultra-short pulse to generate short-lived charges, which are accelerated with an applied electric field. The emitted field, <math>E_{THz}</math> is related to the current, <em>J</em>, by | ||
<center><math>E_{THz}\propto\partial J/\partial t</math></center> | |||
Though PDAs are bright THz sources, finite carrier lifetimes limit the bandwidth available from photoconductive materials to less than that acheivable via OR in NLO materials. Detection of the THz pulse occurs, essentially, through the opposite effect. An ultra-short pulse generates short-lived charge carriers, which are subsequently accelerated by the THz electric field. This generates a transient current between two electrodes, which is proportional to the amplitude and direction of the THz electric field making this a coherent detection technique. A delay stage allows for the one pulse to be moved in time with respect to the other, similar to a correlation, such that the THz waveform is sampled point-by-point by the "probe" pulse | |||
[[Image:THz_OR.png|thumb|300px|THz "Optical-rectification" generates broadband THz pulses via difference frequency mixing of the frequency components of an ultra-short pulse]] | [[Image:THz_OR.png|thumb|300px|THz "Optical-rectification" generates broadband THz pulses via difference frequency mixing of the frequency components of an ultra-short pulse]] | ||
OR is more properly though of as difference frequency mixing. In a NLO material, the polarization induced by an AC electric field will not reverse its sign at the same time as the driving field, leading to a nonlinear polarization and thus frequency mixing. If the field is applied with a femptosecond laser pulse, with a large spectral bandwidth, difference frequency mixing of different frequency components results in electromagnetic waves in the terahertz region. This is the optical analog of the audible beat frequency generated by two struck tuning forks. The efficiency of THz generation depends on the second order nonlinear susceptibility of the medium. Popular materials include: inorganic NLO crystals (e.g. ZnTe, GaP), organic NLO crystals (e.g. DAST), NLO guest-host electro-optic (EO) polymers. | OR is more properly though of as difference frequency mixing. In a NLO material, the polarization induced by an AC electric field will not reverse its sign at the same time as the driving field, leading to a nonlinear polarization and thus frequency mixing. If the field is applied with a femptosecond laser pulse, with a large spectral bandwidth, difference frequency mixing of different frequency components results in electromagnetic waves in the terahertz region. This is the optical analog of the audible beat frequency generated by two struck tuning forks. The emitted field is related to the polarization, <em>P</em>, by | ||
<center><math>E_{THz}\propto\partial^{2} P/\partial t^{2}</math></center> | |||
The efficiency of THz generation depends on the second order nonlinear susceptibility of the medium. Popular materials include: inorganic NLO crystals (e.g. ZnTe, GaP), organic NLO crystals (e.g. DAST), NLO guest-host electro-optic (EO) polymers. | |||
See [[Second-order_Processes#Sum_and_Difference_Frequency_Generation|Sum and Difference Frequency Generation]] | |||
[[Image:FSEOS_of_THz.png|thumb|300px|Free-space electro-optic sampling experimental schematic]] | [[Image:FSEOS_of_THz.png|thumb|300px|Free-space electro-optic sampling experimental schematic]] | ||
In free-space electro-optic sampling (FSEOS), the THz waveform and a ultra-short "probe" pulse propagate collinearly through an EO medium. In the absence of the THz pulse, the "probe" pulse has a linear polarization that it changed to be circular by the compensator and is separated into s- and p- components by the Wollaston polarizing beam splitter. For equal s- & p- components, the balanced photodiodes produce null current. In the presence of the THz field, the EO medium becomes birefringent through the Pockel effect, and the polarization of the probe is rotated. The imbalance in s- and p- polarization causes a current, proportional to the THz field and direction, to flow from the balanced photodoides. Again, a delay stage allows for the one pulse to be moved in time with respect to the other, such that the THz waveform is sampled by the "probe" pulse. As the recorded current is proportional to the time-dependent THz electric field, this is also a coherent detection technique. | In free-space electro-optic sampling (FSEOS), the THz waveform and a ultra-short "probe" pulse propagate collinearly through an EO medium. In the absence of the THz pulse, the "probe" pulse has a linear polarization that it changed to be circular by the compensator and is separated into s- and p- components by the Wollaston polarizing beam splitter. For equal s- & p- components, the balanced photodiodes produce null current. In the presence of the THz field, the EO medium becomes birefringent through the Pockel effect, and the polarization of the probe is rotated. The imbalance in s- and p- polarization causes a current, proportional to the THz field and direction, to flow from the balanced photodoides. Again, a delay stage allows for the one pulse to be moved in time with respect to the other, such that the THz waveform is sampled by the "probe" pulse. The detected current, <math>I_{det}</math> is related to the optical index, <em>n</em>, effective EO coefficient, <math>r_{eff}</math>, and sensor thickness, <em>d</em> by | ||
<center><math>I_{det}\propto n^{3}r_{eff} d E_{THz}</math></center> | |||
As the recorded current is proportional to the time-dependent THz electric field, this is also a coherent detection technique. | |||
See [[Second-order_Processes#Electro-optic_effects|Electro-optic effects]] | |||
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In a typical experimental setup a sub-100 fs "pump" laser pulse travels through a second-order NLO, i.e. electro-optic (EO), material which generates THz by optical rectification. The radiation is collected and focused with front-surface mirrors and directed towards to detector, where it is overlapped collinearly with the sampling, "probe" beam. The probe is separated into s- and p- polarization components using a wollaston polarizing beam splitter. The two component polarization beams are directed into balanced photo-diodes, which yield null current for equal s- and p- beam intensities. The THz electric field induces a change in the index of refraction of the EO sensor material via the electrooptic effect, rotating the "probe" polarization. This produces unequal s- and p- beam intensities, leading to current flow proportional to the THz electric field amplitude and direction. Delay stages are used to change the delay between the THz and "probe" beams, allowing the "probe" to sample the THz waveform. The shape of the recorded current matches the THz waveform, i.e. the electric field of the THz pulse. | In a typical experimental setup a sub-100 fs "pump" laser pulse travels through a second-order NLO, i.e. electro-optic (EO), material which generates THz by optical rectification. The radiation is collected and focused with front-surface mirrors and directed towards to detector, where it is overlapped collinearly with the sampling, "probe" beam. The probe is separated into s- and p- polarization components using a wollaston polarizing beam splitter. The two component polarization beams are directed into balanced photo-diodes, which yield null current for equal s- and p- beam intensities. The THz electric field induces a change in the index of refraction of the EO sensor material via the electrooptic effect, rotating the "probe" polarization. This produces unequal s- and p- beam intensities, leading to current flow proportional to the THz electric field amplitude and direction. Delay stages are used to change the delay between the THz and "probe" beams, allowing the "probe" to sample the THz waveform. The shape of the recorded current matches the THz waveform, i.e. the electric field of the THz pulse. | ||
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Revision as of 20:01, 24 September 2009
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Terahertz (THz) is Far-Infrared radiation located between microwaves and infrared in the electromagnetic spectrum. It is low-energy, non-ionizing radiation which can penetrate many non-polar, non-conducting materials such as clothing, paper, masonry or plastic. Possible applications of THz include:
- Medical imaging - THz can penetrate several millimeters into tissues with low water content, or deep into teeth, without damage. For example: THz can be used for burn depth assessment, skin cancer identification, etc.
- Security screening- THz can penetrate clothing and reveal hidden weapons. Explosives, biological agents, and controlled substances have specific spectral signatures allowing for chemical identification.
- Spectroscopy- THz time domain spectroscopy can measure the low-energy, far-infrared properties of substances that are opaque in the visible and near-infrared regions of the spectrum. In particular, collective vibrations, phonon resonances, and scattering rates of charge carriers are typically in the THz range.
- Manufacturing- Circuit boards, device components, and the contents of paper packages can be easily visualized for quality control. For example, THz inspections can identify voids in space shuttle foam, like those responsible for the Columbia disaster.
History of THz Science
Far-infrared studies have occurred since the invention of the bolometer in 1881 by astronomer Samuel Langley. Much of the early far-infrared work was done by Rubens, who discovered reststrahlen sources enabling measurements crucial to Planck's blackbody radiation theory. Far-infrared transmission studies of superconductors confirmed the energy gap predicted by Bardeen,Cooper, and Schrieffer's superconductivity theory. Since the invention of frequency-division multiplexing in 1949, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy became a standard tool in physical chemistry. Over the years, numerous sources and detectors have been discovered e.g. Golay cell, water-vapor laser, pyroelectric detector, synchrotrons, free-electron lasers, and quantum cascade lasers.
Modern pulsed-THz sources grew out of the work of Auston, Nuss, and Grischkowsky on photoconductive switches, electrical pulses on transmission lines, and far-infrared emission from nonlinear crystals in the 1980s. Since their pioneering work, photoconductive switches have become one of two popular methods of generation and coherent detection of bright THz pulses with high sensitivity. The other popular modern method involves generation of broadband THz radiation via "optical rectification" and coherent detection of the THz waveform through free-space electro-optic sampling, both occurring in nonlinear optical media.
THz generation and detection
THz radiation is typically generated via optical rectification (OR) in a nonlinear optical (NLO) material or impulsively from photoconductive dipole antennae (PDA).
In a PDA, THz radiation is emitted by an ultra-fast transient photo-current created in a biased semiconductor, typically GaAs. The semiconductor is photo-excited with an ultra-short pulse to generate short-lived charges, which are accelerated with an applied electric field. The emitted field, <math>E_{THz}</math> is related to the current, J, by
Though PDAs are bright THz sources, finite carrier lifetimes limit the bandwidth available from photoconductive materials to less than that acheivable via OR in NLO materials. Detection of the THz pulse occurs, essentially, through the opposite effect. An ultra-short pulse generates short-lived charge carriers, which are subsequently accelerated by the THz electric field. This generates a transient current between two electrodes, which is proportional to the amplitude and direction of the THz electric field making this a coherent detection technique. A delay stage allows for the one pulse to be moved in time with respect to the other, similar to a correlation, such that the THz waveform is sampled point-by-point by the "probe" pulse
OR is more properly though of as difference frequency mixing. In a NLO material, the polarization induced by an AC electric field will not reverse its sign at the same time as the driving field, leading to a nonlinear polarization and thus frequency mixing. If the field is applied with a femptosecond laser pulse, with a large spectral bandwidth, difference frequency mixing of different frequency components results in electromagnetic waves in the terahertz region. This is the optical analog of the audible beat frequency generated by two struck tuning forks. The emitted field is related to the polarization, P, by
The efficiency of THz generation depends on the second order nonlinear susceptibility of the medium. Popular materials include: inorganic NLO crystals (e.g. ZnTe, GaP), organic NLO crystals (e.g. DAST), NLO guest-host electro-optic (EO) polymers. See Sum and Difference Frequency Generation
In free-space electro-optic sampling (FSEOS), the THz waveform and a ultra-short "probe" pulse propagate collinearly through an EO medium. In the absence of the THz pulse, the "probe" pulse has a linear polarization that it changed to be circular by the compensator and is separated into s- and p- components by the Wollaston polarizing beam splitter. For equal s- & p- components, the balanced photodiodes produce null current. In the presence of the THz field, the EO medium becomes birefringent through the Pockel effect, and the polarization of the probe is rotated. The imbalance in s- and p- polarization causes a current, proportional to the THz field and direction, to flow from the balanced photodoides. Again, a delay stage allows for the one pulse to be moved in time with respect to the other, such that the THz waveform is sampled by the "probe" pulse. The detected current, <math>I_{det}</math> is related to the optical index, n, effective EO coefficient, <math>r_{eff}</math>, and sensor thickness, d by
As the recorded current is proportional to the time-dependent THz electric field, this is also a coherent detection technique. See Electro-optic effects
In a typical experimental setup a sub-100 fs "pump" laser pulse travels through a second-order NLO, i.e. electro-optic (EO), material which generates THz by optical rectification. The radiation is collected and focused with front-surface mirrors and directed towards to detector, where it is overlapped collinearly with the sampling, "probe" beam. The probe is separated into s- and p- polarization components using a wollaston polarizing beam splitter. The two component polarization beams are directed into balanced photo-diodes, which yield null current for equal s- and p- beam intensities. The THz electric field induces a change in the index of refraction of the EO sensor material via the electrooptic effect, rotating the "probe" polarization. This produces unequal s- and p- beam intensities, leading to current flow proportional to the THz electric field amplitude and direction. Delay stages are used to change the delay between the THz and "probe" beams, allowing the "probe" to sample the THz waveform. The shape of the recorded current matches the THz waveform, i.e. the electric field of the THz pulse.
EO Polymers for THz
EO poled guest-host polymers have the potential to acheive orders of magnitude higher optical nonlinearities than crystalline materials. Poled polymers have acheived electro-optic coefficients >400 pm/V, which is two orders of magnitude larger than the inorganic crystal ZnTe, a standard material for THz generation and detection. The tunable optical and NLO properties of poled polymers, along with good phase matching, makes them valuable for THz applications.[1] For example, poled polymers have been used to achieve a broad bandwidth THz system at telecommunications wavelengths,[2] where compact laser systems are available. Due to their relatively flat THz index of refraction, proper choice of the "pump" wavelength would allow for phase matching across the THz band even for very thick polymers.
Phase matching (i.e. velocity matching) is necessary for efficient THz generation and detection. For efficient energy transfer between the optical and THz pulses, they should travel through the NLO medium at the same velocity. The distance over which the THz and optical travel in phase is the coherence length, <math>l_{c}</math>,
where c is the speed of light, <math>\omega = 2 \pi f</math>, f is the THz frequency, <math>\lambda_{opt}</math> is the "pump" wavelength, and <math>n_{opt}</math> and <math>n_{THz}</math> are the optical and THz indices of refraction of the NLO medium. For thicker emitters, destructive interference occurs between newly generated THz pulses and those generated earlier in the material, reducing the amplitude at the mismatched frequencies. Due to phonon lattice resonances in the THz regime, NLO crystals can be quite dispersive across this band. Many crystals are also disperive in the visible and near infrared (NIR). Polymers have very low dispersion. Their NIR and THz indices of refraction are nearly the same, yielding very good phase matching and allowing for broadband THz generation.[3]
Spectroscopy Applications
When THz radiation passes through an object its dielectric properties can be revealed.
THz Time Domain Spectroscopy
The electric field of the THz pulse is sampled via the electrooptic effect in a second order nonlinear material.
The field transmitted through the sample is compared to that transmitted through its substrate (or through free space for free standing samples) and through fourier analysis the frequency dependent index of refraction and absorption coefficients are extracted.
Optical Pump THz Probe Spectroscopy
In Optical Pump THz Probe Spectroscopy (OPTP) the THz waveform transmitted through the excited sample is compared to that transmitted through the unexcited sample and through fourier analysis the full frequency dependent complex conductivity can be obtained. Modeling on this photo-induced conductivity yields the mobility and carrier density, also giving the photon-to-carrier yield. Control of the delay between the excitation (the "pump") and the THz pulse (the "probe") provides the time evolution of the photoexcited state.
To extract the complex conductivity we use the following approximate analytic relationship following the work of Sundstrum
- <math>\tilde{\sigma} (\omega) \approx - \frac {(n_{THz} +1 )}{Z_0d}\frac {\Delta \tilde{E}(\omega)}{\tilde{E}_0(\omega)}\,\!</math>
where
- <math>d\,\!</math> is the absorption depth at λexc
Advantages
- Non-contact low energy (meV) non-perturbing optical probe with sub-ps resolution
- Coherent detection provides magnitude and phase of THz waveform, i.e. direct access to the complex dielectric properties of materials under study
- THz radiation is sensitive to charge carriers as carrier scattering times are fs-ps placing the scattering (damping) rate in the THz regime
Special Studies
Time-resolved broadband THz studies have the capability to reveal new physics concerning the nature of charge transport in polymers. Many models of conductivity are similar over narrow bandwidths, particularly 0-2 THz (Figure 1.26, left). Broadband (0-15 THz) OPTP will access frequency ranges where the models diverge from each other allowing a more complete understanding of the fundamental charge carrier dynamics and mechanisms.
Carrier Dynamics
OPTP spectroscopy has be used to examine carrier dynamics, Drude-like and deviations from the Drude model in popular semiconductors such as semi-insulating (SI-) GaAs
Carrier trapping
It can also be used to identify carrier trapping. The rapid decrease in THz absorption (below) in photoexcited LT-GaAs is due to carrier trapping by As clusters.
We have applied this technique to study carrier dynamics in RR-P3HT and ultrafast charge transfer in the bulk heterojunction P3HT/PCBM 1:1 excited with either 400 nm (3.1 eV) and 800 nm (1.44 eV) light, the results of which are published in J Phys Chem C.
At low temperature there is an increase in the photoconductivity (mobility) of P3HT due to decreased torsoinal disorder which increases the effective conjugation length. The faster recombination dynamics are associated with inhibited interchain hopping at low temperature.
The extracted complex frequency-dependent conductivty of P3HT exibits characteristics of strong (Anderson) carrier localization and inhibited long range trasport due to disorder (below). Fitting of the conductivity to the Drude-Smith model provides photon-to-carrier yields of < 1.5% and a hole mobility of ~35 cm^2/Vs. The THz regime mobility agrees well with published DFT calculations of the predicted intrinsic hole mobility in well ordered P3HT.
The high frequency THz radiation probes carriers over short (nanoscale) distances, which corresponds to highly ordered domains in this system. Through this experiment we are able to experimentally determine the upper limit of the carrier mobility that would be seen in a device with perfect ordering, instead of the disorder limited mobility typically seen in devices.
External Links
See Wikipedia Terahertz Radiation
See Wikipedia Terahertz time-domain spectroscopy
See Wapedia Terahertz
See THz Group Wiki- password required THz Polymers Wiki
References
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